Petroleum is a fossil fuel. Petroleum is often called crude oil, or oil.
It is called a fossil fuel because it was formed from the remains of
tiny sea plants and animals that died millions of years ago. When the
plants and animals died, they sank to the bottom of the oceans.
Here, they were buried by thousands of feet of sand and sediment,
which turned into sedimentary rock. As the layers increased, they
pressed harder and harder on the decayed remains at the bottom.
The heat and pressure changed the remains and, eventually,
petroleum was formed.
Petroleum deposits are locked in porous rocks almost like water is
trapped in a wet sponge. When crude oil comes out of the ground,
it can be as thin as water or as thick as tar. Petroleum is called a
nonrenewable energy source because it takes millions of years to
form. We cannot make new petroleum reserves.
Jumat, 28 September 2012
WHY ETHYLENE GAS TO MAKE A QUICK FRUIT RIPE
why ethylene gas to make a quick fruit ripe?
Ethylene is a growth hormone that is produced from normal metabolism in plants. Role of ethylene in fruit ripening and leaf loss. Ethylene is also called ethane
1. Ethylene compounds in plants are found in the gas phase, that is also called ethylene gas. Ethylene gas is colorless and volatile
2.Etilen has a fairly simple structure and are produced in higher plants.benefits of Ethylene
Ethylene is often used by the distributors and importers of fruit. Fruit packed in immature fruit for transport dealers. Once up to trade, the fruit is given ethylene (brooded) so fast cook.
In fruit ripening, ethylene working to solve the chlorophyll in young fruit, so the fruit has only xantofil and carotene. Thus, the color becomes orange or red fruit
Biosynthesis and Metabolism
Ethylene is produced by higher plants from the essential amino acid methionine in all plant tissues. Production of ethylene depends on the type of tissue, species, and stage of development. Ethylene is formed from methionine via 3 ATP process is an important component in the synthesis of ethylene. ATP and water will make methionine lost 3 phosphate groups. 1-Amino-1-carboxylic aminosiklopropana synthase (ACC synthase) and facilitates the production of ACC and SAM (S-adenosil methionine).
Oxygen required to oxidize ACC and ethylene production. This reaction is catalyzed using ethylene-forming enzyme. ACC synthase enzymes in tomatoes to be manipulated through biotechnology to slow ripening of the fruit so that the flavor is maintained.
Ethylene is a growth hormone that is produced from normal metabolism in plants. Role of ethylene in fruit ripening and leaf loss. Ethylene is also called ethane
1. Ethylene compounds in plants are found in the gas phase, that is also called ethylene gas. Ethylene gas is colorless and volatile
2.Etilen has a fairly simple structure and are produced in higher plants.benefits of Ethylene
Ethylene is often used by the distributors and importers of fruit. Fruit packed in immature fruit for transport dealers. Once up to trade, the fruit is given ethylene (brooded) so fast cook.
In fruit ripening, ethylene working to solve the chlorophyll in young fruit, so the fruit has only xantofil and carotene. Thus, the color becomes orange or red fruit
Biosynthesis and Metabolism
Ethylene is produced by higher plants from the essential amino acid methionine in all plant tissues. Production of ethylene depends on the type of tissue, species, and stage of development. Ethylene is formed from methionine via 3 ATP process is an important component in the synthesis of ethylene. ATP and water will make methionine lost 3 phosphate groups. 1-Amino-1-carboxylic aminosiklopropana synthase (ACC synthase) and facilitates the production of ACC and SAM (S-adenosil methionine).
Oxygen required to oxidize ACC and ethylene production. This reaction is catalyzed using ethylene-forming enzyme. ACC synthase enzymes in tomatoes to be manipulated through biotechnology to slow ripening of the fruit so that the flavor is maintained.
Kamis, 27 September 2012
AS ETHYLENE INHIBITOR
As Ethylene Inhibitor
Why ethylene as an inhibitor of CO2?? Because of the changes in biochemistry and physiology during the harvest, which transpirasimenciptakan pumping activities, water is absorbed from the roots, trunk, branches and leaves untukmempertahankan turgiditas, so the plants look fresh and also have jaminankesehatan plants. Turgiditas of an organ is the result of a balance between hilangnyaair through transpiration and water appeal to the cells. The existence of transpiration, the water content of the cells decreased as a result cover osmotic pressure (OP) decreases. So SP increases. If the organs remain attached to the plant, the water quickly offset olehmasuknya deficitdengan water of vascular tissue, thereby tetapsegar cells (Turgid). Example:
(1) if it means picking our fruit, broke ties with the parent / base, the water deficit so it is not balanced, the fruit will lose turgiditasnya.Nampak fresh fruit that had withered. The consequences of the loss of turgor.
a) Transpiration and it will lose the protection of the plant leaf cools. As a result of biochemical changes in the leaves.b) The cells on the surface of the leaves become less active or inactive, and the leaves will be easy to attack pathogens. So, post-harvest handling to maintain turgidity. Another problem is the change of atmosphere in the fruit as we have depanbahwa plant is a closed system in which a layer of cuticle that coats epidermisdapat withstand the pressure a bit high. In apples, for example, the atmosphere or the air in berbedakomposisinya from the air around it. On leaves that have a spongy tissue dimanaterdapat air spaces, clearly different from the composition of the air with outside air. There are air Padaruang gas N2, O2 and CO2 and ethylene which is a product darimetabolisme. If the leaves or fruit are picked, it means deciding barriers by cuticle,
2. there will be a flow of oxygen to the CO2 out of the fruit and the fruit. Consequently tarjadirasio O2 / CO2 is high. This will lead to increase in respiration and akanmempercepat spent materials for respiration, especially meningkatnyaproses-sugar reduction and oxidative processes primarily affecting phenolic compounds. Fruit yangmengalami this stress will stimulate respiration and Intesa protein. Increased respiration will lead to increased heat loss and plenty of water. Ethylene originally konsentrasinya100 - 1000 ppm through injury plucking will be reduced, so that the concentration menurunantara 0.5 to 1 pp.
Chilling susceptible crop plants that are susceptible to cold temperatures. Chillingsusceptible crop causing physical damage to the fruit, where ethylene production akanmeningkat due to physical damage. In chilling injury (damage due to low temperatures) terjadikerusakan primary and secondary. In the primary damage physical changes in membrane elipida. Then the secondary damage that occurs among ethylene synthesis stimulation that causes the crops (mainly fruit) mature faster, but, at temperatures that may cause the cessation terlalurendah maturation. Fruits and vegetables are very sensitive to cold damage when cooled below 13-16 ° C (55-60 ° F). Cold damage lowers product quality and memperpendekmasa save. Chilling injury can still be restored if such low temperatures masihmendekati optimum temperature threshold ..
Why ethylene as an inhibitor of CO2?? Because of the changes in biochemistry and physiology during the harvest, which transpirasimenciptakan pumping activities, water is absorbed from the roots, trunk, branches and leaves untukmempertahankan turgiditas, so the plants look fresh and also have jaminankesehatan plants. Turgiditas of an organ is the result of a balance between hilangnyaair through transpiration and water appeal to the cells. The existence of transpiration, the water content of the cells decreased as a result cover osmotic pressure (OP) decreases. So SP increases. If the organs remain attached to the plant, the water quickly offset olehmasuknya deficitdengan water of vascular tissue, thereby tetapsegar cells (Turgid). Example:
(1) if it means picking our fruit, broke ties with the parent / base, the water deficit so it is not balanced, the fruit will lose turgiditasnya.Nampak fresh fruit that had withered. The consequences of the loss of turgor.
a) Transpiration and it will lose the protection of the plant leaf cools. As a result of biochemical changes in the leaves.b) The cells on the surface of the leaves become less active or inactive, and the leaves will be easy to attack pathogens. So, post-harvest handling to maintain turgidity. Another problem is the change of atmosphere in the fruit as we have depanbahwa plant is a closed system in which a layer of cuticle that coats epidermisdapat withstand the pressure a bit high. In apples, for example, the atmosphere or the air in berbedakomposisinya from the air around it. On leaves that have a spongy tissue dimanaterdapat air spaces, clearly different from the composition of the air with outside air. There are air Padaruang gas N2, O2 and CO2 and ethylene which is a product darimetabolisme. If the leaves or fruit are picked, it means deciding barriers by cuticle,
2. there will be a flow of oxygen to the CO2 out of the fruit and the fruit. Consequently tarjadirasio O2 / CO2 is high. This will lead to increase in respiration and akanmempercepat spent materials for respiration, especially meningkatnyaproses-sugar reduction and oxidative processes primarily affecting phenolic compounds. Fruit yangmengalami this stress will stimulate respiration and Intesa protein. Increased respiration will lead to increased heat loss and plenty of water. Ethylene originally konsentrasinya100 - 1000 ppm through injury plucking will be reduced, so that the concentration menurunantara 0.5 to 1 pp.
Chilling susceptible crop plants that are susceptible to cold temperatures. Chillingsusceptible crop causing physical damage to the fruit, where ethylene production akanmeningkat due to physical damage. In chilling injury (damage due to low temperatures) terjadikerusakan primary and secondary. In the primary damage physical changes in membrane elipida. Then the secondary damage that occurs among ethylene synthesis stimulation that causes the crops (mainly fruit) mature faster, but, at temperatures that may cause the cessation terlalurendah maturation. Fruits and vegetables are very sensitive to cold damage when cooled below 13-16 ° C (55-60 ° F). Cold damage lowers product quality and memperpendekmasa save. Chilling injury can still be restored if such low temperatures masihmendekati optimum temperature threshold ..
Minggu, 23 September 2012
general organic chemistry
organic chemistry
The structure of the methane molecule: the simplest hydrocarbon bonds.
Organic chemistry is the scientific study of branching chemistry on the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and synthesis of organic compounds. Organic compounds are constructed mainly by carbon and hydrogen, and may contain other elements such as nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, halogens and sulfur.
Original definition of organic chemistry is derived from the misconception that all organic compounds must have come from living organisms, but it has been proved that there are some exceptions. In fact, life is also very dependent on inorganic chemistry, as an example, the enzyme is basing his work on transition metals such as iron and copper, as well as teeth and bone composition is a mixture of organic and inorganic senyama. Another example is the solution of HCl, this solution plays a major role in the process of digestion is almost all organisms (especially the higher organisms) using a solution of HCl to digest food, which is also classified in inorganic compounds. Regarding the element carbon, inorganic chemicals usually associated with the simple carbon compounds that do not contain bonds between carbon as oxides, salts, acids, acetylene, and minerals. But this does not mean that there is not a single carbon compounds in organic compounds such as methane and its derivatives..........
The structure of the methane molecule: the simplest hydrocarbon bonds.
Organic chemistry is the scientific study of branching chemistry on the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and synthesis of organic compounds. Organic compounds are constructed mainly by carbon and hydrogen, and may contain other elements such as nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, halogens and sulfur.
Original definition of organic chemistry is derived from the misconception that all organic compounds must have come from living organisms, but it has been proved that there are some exceptions. In fact, life is also very dependent on inorganic chemistry, as an example, the enzyme is basing his work on transition metals such as iron and copper, as well as teeth and bone composition is a mixture of organic and inorganic senyama. Another example is the solution of HCl, this solution plays a major role in the process of digestion is almost all organisms (especially the higher organisms) using a solution of HCl to digest food, which is also classified in inorganic compounds. Regarding the element carbon, inorganic chemicals usually associated with the simple carbon compounds that do not contain bonds between carbon as oxides, salts, acids, acetylene, and minerals. But this does not mean that there is not a single carbon compounds in organic compounds such as methane and its derivatives..........
the alkanes
The Alkanes
Conformational Isomerism in Substituted Cyclohexanes
In a monosubstituted cyclohexane, the substituent can be either in an
equatorial or axial position. Equatorial positions are more spacious and in
substituted cyclohexanes they are preferred. Cyclohexane rings flip between
chair forms and establish an equilibrium. In the process of flipping, all
equatorial positions become axial and all axial positions become equatorial.
The equilibrium favors the chair in which substituents are equatorial. In
monosubstituted cyclohexanes, the conformation in which the substituent is
equatorial is favored. In disubstituted cyclohexanes where one group is axial
and one equatorial, the equilibrium favors the chair form where the larger
group occupies the more spacious equatorial position
Geometric Isomerism in Cyclic Compounds
Disubstituted cycloalkanes exhibit geometric isomerism, a type of
stereoisomerism. If both groups are on the same "side" of the ring (both up
or both down) the isomer is termed cis. If they are on opposite "sides" (one
up and one down) the isomer is trans.
Hydrocarbons: Relationship of Structure and Physical Properties
The solid, liquid, and gas states of a compound differ in arrangements of
molecules, not in molecular structure. In the solid state the molecules are orderly
arranged and immobile with maximum intermolecular attractions. In the liquid
state, molecules are mobile but still there are intermolecular attractions. In the
vapor phase molecules are mobile and ideally there are no intermolecular
attractions. For these reasons, solids have a constant shape and volume, liquids
have a constant volume and variable shape, and gases assume the size and
shape of the container. Physical properties of hydrocarbons are related to
structure.
A. Melting Point, Boiling Point, and Molecular Weight
Melting points and boiling points generally increase with molecular weight
within a homologous series (a series of compounds in which each
succeeding member differs from the previous one by a CH2 group).
B. Melting Point, Boiling Point, and Molecular Structure
Branched chain hydrocarbons have less surface area and thus less
opportunity for intermolecular attractions; as a result, their boiling points are
lower than the straight chain isomers. However, their compact nature causes
Conformational Isomerism in Substituted Cyclohexanes
In a monosubstituted cyclohexane, the substituent can be either in an
equatorial or axial position. Equatorial positions are more spacious and in
substituted cyclohexanes they are preferred. Cyclohexane rings flip between
chair forms and establish an equilibrium. In the process of flipping, all
equatorial positions become axial and all axial positions become equatorial.
The equilibrium favors the chair in which substituents are equatorial. In
monosubstituted cyclohexanes, the conformation in which the substituent is
equatorial is favored. In disubstituted cyclohexanes where one group is axial
and one equatorial, the equilibrium favors the chair form where the larger
group occupies the more spacious equatorial position
Geometric Isomerism in Cyclic Compounds
Disubstituted cycloalkanes exhibit geometric isomerism, a type of
stereoisomerism. If both groups are on the same "side" of the ring (both up
or both down) the isomer is termed cis. If they are on opposite "sides" (one
up and one down) the isomer is trans.
Hydrocarbons: Relationship of Structure and Physical Properties
The solid, liquid, and gas states of a compound differ in arrangements of
molecules, not in molecular structure. In the solid state the molecules are orderly
arranged and immobile with maximum intermolecular attractions. In the liquid
state, molecules are mobile but still there are intermolecular attractions. In the
vapor phase molecules are mobile and ideally there are no intermolecular
attractions. For these reasons, solids have a constant shape and volume, liquids
have a constant volume and variable shape, and gases assume the size and
shape of the container. Physical properties of hydrocarbons are related to
structure.
A. Melting Point, Boiling Point, and Molecular Weight
Melting points and boiling points generally increase with molecular weight
within a homologous series (a series of compounds in which each
succeeding member differs from the previous one by a CH2 group).
B. Melting Point, Boiling Point, and Molecular Structure
Branched chain hydrocarbons have less surface area and thus less
opportunity for intermolecular attractions; as a result, their boiling points are
lower than the straight chain isomers. However, their compact nature causes
Selasa, 26 Juni 2012
surface tension
Surface Tension and Contact Angle
Knowledge of surface tension and contact angle has a very large role of particles in life. For example, the liquid will spread on the surface or it will be small droplets depends on the properties of the material or fluid.
Surface tension is the force caused by an object acting on the surface of the liquid along the surface that touches it. If F = force (newtons) and L = length (m), the voltage-surface, S can be written as S = F / L. The surface tension caused by the interaction of liquid molecules on the surface of the liquid. In the fluid inside a molecule surrounded by other molecules around it, but there is no liquid on the surface of another molecule at the top of the liquid molecules. This led to the emergence of molecular restoring force is attractive when it is lifted away from the surface of the molecule, the molecule that is in the bottom surface of the liquid. Conversely, if the molecules on the surface of the liquid is pressed
Capillarity is caused by the interaction of the molecules in the liquid. In the liquid molecules can be subjected to adhesion and cohesion. Style of cohesion is the attraction between molecules in a liquid while the adhesion force is the attraction between molecules with other molecules that are not similar, ie materials in which the liquid container is located. If the adhesion is greater than the cohesion as in water with a glass surface, the water will interact strongly with the surface of the glass so the water over the glass and the liquid surface will be curved (concave). This situation can cause the liquid to rise to the top of the surface tension limit of him up until the upward force to balance gravity fluid is reached. So the water can rise up in a small tube called a capillary tube. This is what happens when the water rises from the ground up through the wall.
UAS pengantar pendidikan
Soal
1. Ditinjau dari pihak penerima gagasan baik perorangan atau kelompok yang menjadi sasaran yang akan dikenai perubahan, proses inovasi terdiri atas lima tahap yaitu tahap kesadaran, tahap perhatian, tahap penilaian, tahap percobaan, dan tahap penerimaan jelaskan tahap-tahap tersebut dan beri contoh dalam sistem pendidikan !
2. Apa yang dimaksud dengan aspek yuridis ? dan bagaimana pembaharuannya dalam inovasi pendidikan ?
3. Apa saja yang termasuk jenis-jenis inovasi pendidikan dan jelaskan !
4. Bidang dan tujuan pendidik berdasarkan tujuan untuk kapasitas pribadi, tujuan sosial, tujuan ekonomis, tujuan pendidikan menurut tingkat dan jenis pengajaran, cara dan sarana untuk merumuskan tujuan pendidikan. Beri contoh masing-masing bidang pendidikan !
5. Inovasi pendidikan sekarang mengelompokkan peserta didik yang pintar ke kelas unggul bagaimana dampak negatif dan pasif bila hal ini terus berlanjut ?
6. Jelaskan bidang peserta didik atau pelajar menurut umur, kelompok belajar, kemampuan/sifat ajar, tingkat kelas atau jenjang sekolah ?
Jawaban
1. a). Tahap kesadaran (awareness), dimana seseorang atau kelompok yang menjadi sasaran inovasi mulai menyadari dan mengetahui adanya gagasan pembaharuan, meski informasi tentang ide baru itu masih kurang lengkap, namun sudah mulai menangkap beberapa pengertian tentang bagaimana inovasi itu dapat berfungsi.
b). Tahap perhatian (interest), dimana seseorang atau kelompok yang menjadi sasaran mulai menaruh minat menyukai atau tidak terhadap gagasan pembaharuan, dan mulai berusaha mencari informasi yang lebih lengkap tenteng ide pembaharuan tersebut.
c). Tahap penilaian (evaluation), dimana seseorang atau kelompok yang dikenai sasaran inovasi mulai mengadakan penilaian terhadap gagasan baru itu kemudian dibandingkan dihubungkan dengan keadaan situasi diri dan kelompoknya baik pada saat ini atau keadaan dan situasi masa yang akan datang, pada tahap ini pun mulai mempertimbangkan untuk mencobanya atau tidak.
d). Tahap percobaan (trial), diman seseorang atau kelompok yang menjadi sasaran inovasi mulai berusaha mencoba menerapkan penggunaan inovasi pada skala yang kecil untuk menetapkan manfaatnya baik bagi diri maupun bagi kelompoknya.
e). Tahap penerimaan (adoption), dimana seseorang atau kelompok yang menjadi sasaran inovasi mulai menggunakan ide pembaharuan secara tetap dalam skala yang lebih luas.
2. Aspek yuridis adalah:aspek yang memacu pada Undang Undand Dasar 1945 terkandung makna bahwa dasar negara kita adalah pancasila
Pembaharuan dalam inovasi pendidikan:
Pembaharuan dalam nilai atau wawasan pendidikan dalam inovasi ini menuntut adanya yang mendasar tentang orientasi ,wawasan ,asas dan fisolofi,cita cita kebijaksanaan yang sudah tidak cocok lagi dengan tuntunan pembangunan politik ,ekonomi,sosial dan kebudayaan yang berkembag contoh:adanya perubahan terhadap tuntunan dan wawasan baperaturan dan perundang undang yg sudah tidak sesuai lagi dengan tuntunan dan wawasan baru di era informasi ,globalisasi dan era globalisasi.
Pembaharuan dalam jenis operasi tata laksana pengelolahan yang terdiri atas serangkain tata laksana pengelolahan mulai dari penelitian dan pengembangan ,perencanaan,pelaksanaan,pengendalian,penilaian dan pengawasan.
Pembahauan dalam jenis tugas dan fungsi perubahan yang terjadi dalam penilain dan wawasan akan membawa konsekuensi perubahan pula pada fungsi dan tugas lembaga dan orang orang yang ada di dalam nya termasuk para pejabat dan petugas lembaga pendidikan itu baik guru maupun tenaga admistrasi.m pengajaran .
Pembharuan dalam jenis keahlian atau kemampuan kemampuan khusus yang dituntut dari para petugas tata laksana atau guru karna adanya perubahan dalam siste
3. a). Inovasi dalam jenis hubungan antar orang (personal relationship), misalnya pembaharuan dalam peranan guru, perubahan dalam tatalaksana baru, yang harus berdasarkan pengambilan keputusan pada informasi dan bukan pada selera perorangan atau pemimpin.
b). Inovasi dalam jenis softwere (piranti lunak), misalnya perubahan atau pembaharuan mengenai tujuan dan struktur kurikulum, berbagai model sistem penyampaian (delivery system), dan cara-cara penilaian kurikulum dan pendidikan.
c). Inovasi dalam jenis hardwere (piranti keras), misalnya perubahan dan bentuk ruang kelas dalam reangka memenuhi tuntutan baru karena terjadi pembaharuan dalam hubungan antar orang, atau karena terjadi perubahan peranan guru dan adanya perubahan dalam sistem penyampaian atau metode mengajar, adanya sistem komputerisasi, proyektor, mesin pengajaran, adanya laboratorium dan sebagainya.
4. Tujuan untuk kapasitas pribadi misalnya intelektual, moral, emosional, keterampilan, fisik dan sebagainya.
Tujuan sosial misalnya tujuan sosial untuk integrasi nasional, tujuan pendidikan untuk mencapai tujuan sosial demi individu.
Tujuan ekonomis misalnya tujuan untuk meningkatkan kemampuan ekonomi dan kesejahteraan.
Tujuan pendidikan menurut tingkat dan jenis pengajaran
Cara dan sarana untuk merumuskan tujuan pendidikan
5. Peserta didik yg pintar ke kelas unggul dan yg bodoh ke kelas menengah ke bawah> Dampak positifnya:akan menjadi penigkatanat yang menimbulkan beberapa faktor agar bisa mendorng siswa menjadi lebih baik atau pintar. Dampak negatif: menjadi daya saing antara siswa satu dengan siswa yang lain dan anak yang kemampuan nya menengah kebawah atau bodoh tidak bisa membaur dengan yang pintar sehingga menimbulkan siswa pintar mankin pintar dan yang bodoh tidak berkembang karna kurang nya motivasi atau daya saing .
6. Peserta didik atau pelajar menurut umur ,kelompok belajar ,kemampuanan ,tingkat kelas atau jenjang sekolah ?Pengelompokan peserta didik atau pelajar menurut berbagai latar belakang dari unur 3-6 tahun Taman Kanak(TK) ,6-12 pendidikan dasar(SD),13-15 pendidikan menegah pertama(SMP),16-18 pendidikan menegah atas (SMA) selanjut nya pendidikan tinggi dan pendidikan guru.
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